The Central Idea of the Passage Is Thay Theater Is an Art Form Equal to More Popular Forms

Collaborative form of performing fine art

Theatre or theater ^[a] is a collaborative form of performing art that uses alive performers, unremarkably actors or actresses, to nowadays the feel of a real or imagined outcome earlier a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this feel to the audience through combinations of gesture, voice communication, song, music, and dance. Elements of fine art, such every bit painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to heighten the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.^[1] The specific identify of the performance is besides named by the discussion "theatre" every bit derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to watch", "to find").

Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. Theatre creative person Patrice Pavis defines theatricality, theatrical linguistic communication, phase writing and the specificity of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other performing arts, literature and the arts in general.^[2] ^[b]

Modern theatre includes performances of plays and musical theatre. The art forms of ballet and opera are also theatre and utilize many conventions such equally acting, costumes and staging. They were influential to the evolution of musical theatre; see those articles for more data.

History of theatre [edit]

Classical and Hellenistic Greece [edit]

A depiction of actors playing the roles of a master (right) and his slave (left) in a Greek phlyax play, circa 350/340 BCE

The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated.^[3] ^[4] ^[5] ^[c] It was part of a broader culture of theatricality and functioning in classical Greece that included festivals, religious rituals, politics, constabulary, athletics and gymnastics, music, verse, weddings, funerals, and symposia.^[six] ^[5] ^[vii] ^[viii] ^[d]

Participation in the urban center-state's many festivals—and mandatory omnipresence at the City Dionysia as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important function of citizenship.^[10] Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the law-court or political associates, both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.^[11] ^[12] The Greeks besides developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture.^[13] ^[14] ^[15] Actors were either apprentice or at all-time semi-professional.^[16] The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.^[17]

The origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the outset theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing floor (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building area (skene). Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics and articulate delivery were paramount. The actors (always men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.^[18]

Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.^[three] ^[4] ^[v] ^[nineteen] ^[20] ^[e] Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the finish of which information technology began to spread throughout the Greek globe), and connected to be popular until the beginning of the Hellenistic period.^[22] ^[23] ^[4] ^[f]

No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the fifth century BCE have survived.^[25] ^[26] ^{[one thousand]} Nosotros have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.^[27] ^[h] The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institutionalised in competitions (agon) held as part of festivities jubilant Dionysus (the god of wine and fertility).^[28] ^[29] Equally contestants in the City Dionysia's contest (the almost prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to nowadays a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily continued by story or theme), which usually consisted of iii tragedies and one satyr play.^[30] ^[31] ^[i] The functioning of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (didaskaliai) begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.^[32] ^[xxx] ^[j]

About Athenian tragedies dramatise events from Greek mythology, though The Persians—which stages the Persian response to news of their war machine defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.^[xxx] ^[k] When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the Metropolis Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest instance of drama to survive.^[30] ^[34] More than 130 years subsequently, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving piece of work of dramatic theory—his Poetics (c. 335 BCE).

Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New One-act". Old One-act survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, while Heart Comedy is largely lost (preserved simply in relatively short fragments in authors such every bit Athenaeus of Naucratis). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy equally a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not crusade pain or disaster.^[l]

In add-on to the categories of one-act and tragedy at the Urban center Dionysia, the festival also included the Satyr Play. Finding its origins in rural, agronomical rituals defended to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known class. Satyr'due south themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken revelry and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified every bit tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more modern burlesque traditions of the early twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in homo affairs, backed by the chorus of Satyrs. Yet, according to Webster, satyr actors did non always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical forest creature.^[35]

Roman theatre [edit]

Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: ii women consult a "witch"

Western theatre developed and expanded considerably nether the Romans. The Roman historian Livy wrote that the Romans kickoff experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance by Etruscan actors.^[36] Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.^[37] The theatre of aboriginal Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus's broadly appealing state of affairs comedies, to the high-way, verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of operation, the Hellenization of Roman culture in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest quality for the phase. The only surviving plays from the Roman Empire are 10 dramas attributed to Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-born Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.^[38]

Indian theatre [edit]

Koothu is an ancient form of performing art that originated in early Tamilakam.

The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama appointment from the 1st century CE.^[39] ^[40] The wealth of archeological evidence from before periods offers no indication of the beingness of a tradition of theatre.^[41] The aboriginal Vedas (hymns from betwixt 1500 and m BCE that are amidst the earliest examples of literature in the world) contain no hint of information technology (although a small number are equanimous in a form of dialogue) and the rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.^[41] The Mahābhāṣya past Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.^[42] This treatise on grammer from 140 BCE provides a viable date for the beginnings of theatre in India.^[42]

The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most complete piece of work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, brand-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.^[42] In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground past priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.

Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional person companies that were directed past a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also accept acted.^[39] ^[42] This job was thought of every bit being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".^[42] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.^[43] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female person, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, nonetheless, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives well-nigh attention to interim (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.^[43] ^[m]

Its drama is regarded as the highest accomplishment of Sanskrit literature.^[39] It utilised stock characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular blazon. Kālidāsa in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancient India'south greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired past a story in the Mahabharata and is the virtually famous. It was the offset to exist translated into English and German language. Śakuntalā (in English language translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832).^[39]

The next swell Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. seventh century CE). He is said to have written the following 3 plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two encompass betwixt them the unabridged epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the one-act Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.

Chinese theatre [edit]

Public operation in Jade Dragon Snow Mountain Open Air Theatre

The Tang dynasty is sometimes known as "The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The Pear Garden to produce a course of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are normally chosen "Children of the Pear Garden." During the dynasty of Empress Ling, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized grade of theatre in China. There were ii distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed past the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting slap-up hazard and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda.

Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a blackness face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more than delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the abdomen of a donkey). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were fastened to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a 90 degree bending to connect to the cervix. While these rods were visible when the shadow was bandage, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the advent of the effigy. The rods fastened at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or textile lined box. The heads were always removed at dark. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went and then far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in some other, to farther reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to accept reached its highest point of creative development in the eleventh century before condign a tool of the authorities.

In the Song dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the Yuan dynasty into a more sophisticated form known as zaju, with a four- or five-deed construction. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the best known of which is Peking Opera which is withal popular today.

Xiangsheng is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue.

Indonesian theatre [edit]

In Republic of indonesia, theatre performances have become an important part of local culture, theatre performances in Republic of indonesia have been developed for thousands of years. Most of Indonesia's oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent boob theatres — wayang golek (wooden rod-puppet play) of the Sundanese and wayang kulit (leather shadow-puppet play) of the Javanese and Balinese—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) of Java and Bali, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, called menak.^[44] ^[45] Wayang is an ancient form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate puppet/human and complex musical styles.^[46] The earliest evidence is from the tardily 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.^[47] The oldest known tape that concerns wayang is from the ninth century. Effectually 840 Advertising an Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapalaform Medang Kingdom in Key Java mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit ways Wayang puppet bear witness, Atapukan means Mask dance show, and abanwal means joke art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem equally a leather shadow figure.

Post-classical theatre in the W [edit]

Theatre took on many culling forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including commedia dell'arte and melodrama. The general trend was abroad from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the Renaissance and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially following the Industrial Revolution.^[48]

Theatre took a big pause during 1642 and 1660 in England because of the Puritan Interregnum. Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered the closure of London theatres in 1642.^[50] On 24 Jan 1643, the actors protested against the ban past writing a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.^[51] This stagnant period concluded one time Charles II came dorsum to the throne in 1660 in the Restoration. Theatre (among other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign.

In 1660, two companies were licensed to perform, the Duke's Company and the King's Company. Performances were held in converted buildings, such as Lisle's Tennis Court. The commencement West Terminate theatre, known as Theatre Royal in Covent Garden, London, was designed by Thomas Killigrew and built on the site of the present Theatre Regal, Drury Lane.^[49]

1 of the big changes was the new theatre firm. Instead of the type of the Elizabethan era, such as the World Theatre, round with no place for the actors to really prep for the next deed and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a place of refinement, with a stage in front end and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way effectually the stage, it became prioritized—some seats were obviously better than others. The male monarch would have the best seat in the house: the very eye of the theatre, which got the widest view of the phase as well as the best style to see the point of view and vanishing point that the stage was constructed effectually. Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg was one of the about influential gear up designers of the time because of his use of floor space and scenery.

Considering of the turmoil before this time, there was still some controversy about what should and should not be put on the stage. Jeremy Collier, a preacher, was i of the heads in this motion through his piece A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English language Stage. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held by non-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the time. The main question was if seeing something immoral on phase affects behavior in the lives of those who picket it, a controversy that is all the same playing out today.^[52]

Billing for a British theatre in 1829

The seventeenth century had also introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate before. These women were regarded as celebrities (also a newer concept, thank you to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake of Renaissance Humanism), but on the other hand, information technology was withal very new and revolutionary that they were on the stage, and some said they were unladylike, and looked down on them. Charles II did not like young men playing the parts of young women, so he asked that women play their own parts.^[53] Because women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more than leeway with plot twists, like women dressing as men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy.

Comedies were full of the immature and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their love lives: unremarkably a immature roguish hero professing his honey to the chaste and gratis minded heroine about the end of the play, much like Sheridan's The Schoolhouse for Scandal. Many of the comedies were fashioned after the French tradition, mainly Molière, once more hailing back to the French influence brought back by the Male monarch and the Royals after their exile. Molière was one of the top comedic playwrights of the fourth dimension, revolutionizing the way one-act was written and performed past combining Italian commedia dell'arte and neoclassical French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and most influential satiric comedies.^[54] Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political power, especially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.^[55] They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger stardom betwixt comedy and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Mutual forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies equally well as something that would later on be called tragédie bourgeoise, or domestic tragedy—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more popular in England considering they appealed more to English language sensibilities.^[56]

While theatre troupes were formerly often travelling, the idea of the national theatre gained back up in the 18th century, inspired by Ludvig Holberg. The major promoter of the idea of the national theatre in Germany, and likewise of the Sturm und Drang poets, was Abel Seyler, the owner of the Hamburgische Entreprise and the Seyler Theatre Company.^[57]

Through the 19th century, the popular theatrical forms of Romanticism, melodrama, Victorian burlesque and the well-fabricated plays of Scribe and Sardou gave style to the problem plays of Naturalism and Realism; the farces of Feydeau; Wagner'southward operatic Gesamtkunstwerk; musical theatre (including Gilbert and Sullivan'due south operas); F. C. Burnand's, W. S. Gilbert'southward and Oscar Wilde's cartoon-room comedies; Symbolism; proto-Expressionism in the belatedly works of Baronial Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen;^[59] and Edwardian musical comedy.

These trends continued through the 20th century in the realism of Stanislavski and Lee Strasberg, the political theatre of Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht, the and so-called Theatre of the Absurd of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco, American and British musicals, the collective creations of companies of actors and directors such as Joan Littlewood's Theatre Workshop, experimental and postmodern theatre of Robert Wilson and Robert Lepage, the postcolonial theatre of Baronial Wilson or Tomson Highway, and Augusto Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed.

Eastern theatrical traditions [edit]

The first form of Indian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre.^[60] It began later on the development of Greek and Roman theatre and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.^[60] It emerged sometime betwixt the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written.^[61] ^[41] Japanese forms of Kabuki, Nō, and Kyōgen adult in the 17th century CE.^[62] Theatre in the medieval Islamic globe included puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved effectually the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less mutual than puppetry and ta'ziya theatre.^[63]

Types [edit]

Drama [edit]

Drama is the specific way of fiction represented in operation.^[64] The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action", which is derived from the verb δράω, dráō, "to exercise" or "to deed". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a phase earlier an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, dissimilar other forms of literature, is directly influenced past this collaborative production and collective reception.^[65] The early modern tragedy Village (1601) by Shakespeare and the classical Athenian tragedy Oedipus Male monarch (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are amidst the masterpieces of the art of drama.^[66] A modernistic example is Long Mean solar day's Journeying into Night by Eugene O'Neill (1956).^[67]

Considered as a genre of verse in general, the dramatic way has been contrasted with the epic and the lyrical modes ever since Aristotle's Poetics (c. 335 BCE); the earliest work of dramatic theory.^[north] The utilize of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific blazon of play dates from the 19th century. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, Zola's Thérèse Raquin (1873) or Chekhov's Ivanov (1887). In Aboriginal Hellenic republic still, the word drama encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or anything in between.

Drama is oft combined with music and dance: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals mostly include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and Japanese Nō, for example).^[o] In certain periods of history (the aboriginal Roman and modern Romantic) some dramas have been written to be read rather than performed.^[p] In improvisation, the drama does non pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.^[q]

Musical theatre [edit]

Music and theatre have had a shut relationship since aboriginal times—Athenian tragedy, for instance, was a form of dance-drama that employed a chorus whose parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an aulos—an instrument comparable to the modernistic clarinet), equally were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' (monodies).^[68] Modern musical theatre is a course of theatre that also combines music, spoken dialogue, and dance. It emerged from comic opera (especially Gilbert and Sullivan), diverseness, vaudeville, and music hall genres of the late 19th and early 20th century.^[69] Subsequently the Edwardian musical comedy that began in the 1890s, the Princess Theatre musicals of the early on 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such as the works of Rodgers and Hammerstein), with Oklahoma! (1943), musicals moved in a more dramatic direction.^[r] Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included My Off-white Lady (1956), West Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1980), Cats (1981), Into the Wood (1986), and The Phantom of the Opera (1986),^[seventy] equally well as more than gimmicky hits including Hire (1994), The Panthera leo King (1997), Wicked (2003), Hamilton (2015) and Frozen (2018).

Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate calibration Off-Broadway, in regional theatres, and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For instance, Broadway and Due west End musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets.

Comedy [edit]

Theatre productions that use humour as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern farce such equally Boeing Boeing or a classical play such as As You Similar Information technology. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboo subject area affair in a deliberately humorous manner is referred to every bit black comedy. Black One-act can have several genres similar slapstick humour, dark and sarcastic one-act.

Tragedy [edit]

Tragedy, and so, is an fake of an activeness that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude: in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being institute in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, non of narrative; through pity and fearfulness effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.

Aristotle'due south phrase "several kinds being found in separate parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in the Attic dialect whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in the Doric dialect, these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins and poetic metres of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatrical drama.

Tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and of import role historically in the self-definition of Western culture.^[72] ^[73] That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, all the same the term has frequently been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a mutual activity," as Raymond Williams puts it.^[74] From its obscure origins in the theatres of Athens ii,500 years ago, from which in that location survives but a fraction of the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, through its atypical articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Racine, and Schiller, to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Strindberg, Beckett's modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering, and Müller's postmodernist reworkings of the tragic catechism, tragedy has remained an of import site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and alter.^[75] ^[76] In the wake of Aristotle's Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in full general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.^[s]

Improvisation [edit]

Improvisation has been a consistent characteristic of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century existence recognised every bit the outset improvisation form. Popularized by Nobel Prize Winner Dario Fo and troupes such every bit the Upright Citizens Brigade improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many dissimilar streams and philosophies. Keith Johnstone and Viola Spolin are recognized equally the first teachers of improvisation in modern times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation as an alternative to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally every bit a tool for developing dramatic piece of work or skills or as a form for situational comedy. Spolin likewise became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.^[77] Spolin's son, Paul Sills popularized improvisational theatre equally a theatrical art form when he founded, as its kickoff director, The Second Urban center in Chicago.

Theories [edit]

Village feast with theatre performance circa 1600

Having been an important part of homo civilisation for more than 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a wide range of different theories and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as effect, and some on theatre as goad for social change. The classical Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his seminal treatise, Poetics (c. 335 BCE) is the earliest-surviving example and its arguments take influenced theories of theatre ever since.^[13] ^[14] In it, he offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—also as lyric poetry, epic poesy, and the dithyramb). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its genres and basic elements; his analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the word.^[78]

Aristotle argues that tragedy consists of six qualitative parts, which are (in social club of importance) mythos or "plot", ethos or "character", dianoia or "thought", lexis or "diction", melos or "song", and opsis or "spectacle".^[79] ^[80] "Although Aristotle's Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition", Marvin Carlson explains, "well-nigh every detail most his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."^[81] Important theatre practitioners of the 20th century include Konstantin Stanislavski, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Jacques Copeau, Edward Gordon Craig, Bertolt Brecht, Antonin Artaud, Joan Littlewood, Peter Beck, Jerzy Grotowski, Augusto Boal, Eugenio Barba, Dario Fo, Viola Spolin, Keith Johnstone and Robert Wilson (director).

Stanislavski treated the theatre equally an fine art-form that is autonomous from literature and one in which the playwright's contribution should be respected every bit that of only one of an ensemble of creative artists.^[82] ^[83] ^[84] ^[85] ^[t] His innovative contribution to modern acting theory has remained at the core of mainstream western performance grooming for much of the last century.^[86] ^[87] ^[88] ^[89] ^[90] That many of the precepts of his system of actor grooming seem to be common sense and cocky-axiomatic testifies to its hegemonic success.^[91] Actors oft employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.^[91] Thanks to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were sometime students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski'due south 'organisation' acquired an unprecedented power to cantankerous cultural boundaries and developed an international reach, dominating debates virtually acting in Europe and the United states of america.^[86] ^[92] ^[93] ^[94] Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the Due north American Method, although the latter'due south exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores grapheme and activity both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and trunk as parts of a continuum.^[95] ^[96]

Technical aspects [edit]

Theatre presupposes collaborative modes of production and a commonage form of reception. The construction of dramatic texts, dissimilar other forms of literature, is straight influenced by this collaborative product and collective reception.^[65] The production of plays usually involves contributions from a playwright, director, a cast of actors, and a technical production team that includes a scenic or set up designer, lighting designer, costume designer, sound designer, stage managing director, production director and technical director. Depending on the product, this squad may also include a composer, dramaturg, video designer or fight director.

Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, motion-picture show, and video product. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, pattern and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision.

In its most basic form, stagecraft is managed by a unmarried person (ofttimes the stage managing director of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the cast. At a more than professional level, for example in mod Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern course of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies between these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger customs theatres will more often than not have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs.

Sub-categories and organization [edit]

In that location are many modern theatre movements which go nigh producing theatre in a variety of means. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in community theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre tin can be performed with a shoestring upkeep or on a 1000 scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre sub-categories, which include:

Broadway theatre and West End theatre
Street theatre
Community theatre
Playback theatre
Dinner theater
Fringe theatre
Off-Broadway and Off West End
Off-Off-Broadway
Regional theatre in the United States
Touring theatre
Summer stock theatre

Repertory companies [edit]

While most modern theatre companies rehearse one slice of theatre at a time, perform that piece for a fix "run", retire the piece, and begin rehearsing a new evidence, repertory companies rehearse multiple shows at once. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon asking and often perform works for years earlier retiring them. Most trip the light fantastic companies operate on this repertory organization. The Royal National Theatre in London performs on a repertory system.

Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more on the reputation of the grouping than on an private star actor. It also typically relies less on strict control by a director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions tin can reply to each other without relying as much on convention or external management.^[97]

Producing vs. presenting [edit]

In lodge to put on a slice of theatre, both a theatre company and a theatre venue are needed. When a theatre visitor is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own piece of work. Other theatre companies, every bit well as trip the light fantastic companies, who do not have their own theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no total-fourth dimension resident companies. They practice, still, sometimes have i or more function-fourth dimension resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who conform to utilize the space when bachelor. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the contained companies to support their piece of work by presenting them on their phase.

Some functioning groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place exterior or within, in a non-traditional performance infinite, and include street theatre, and site-specific theatre. Not-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They tin sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or tin can accommodate unlike kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.^[98]

A touring visitor is an contained theatre or dance visitor that travels, often internationally, existence presented at a different theatre in each city.

Unions [edit]

There are many theatre unions including: Actors' Disinterestedness Association (for actors and stage managers), the Phase Directors and Choreographers Society (SDC), and the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE, for designers and technicians). Many theatres require that their staff be members of these organizations.

See as well [edit]

Acting
Antitheatricality
Black light theatre
Culinary theatre
Illusionistic tradition
List of awards in theatre
List of playwrights
List of theatre personnel
List of theatre festivals
List of theatre directors
Lists of theatres
Performance fine art
Puppetry
Reader's theatre
Site-specific theatre
Theatre consultant
Theatre for development
Theater (construction)
Theatre technique
Theatrical style
Theatrical troupe
Earth Theatre Day

Explanatory notes [edit]

^ Originally spelled theatre and teatre. From around 1550 to 1700 or later on, the about common spelling was theater. Between 1720 and 1750, theater was dropped in British English language, but was either retained or revived in American English (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 2009, CD-ROM: ISBN 978-0-19-956383-8). Recent dictionaries of American English list theatre as a less mutual variant, e.g., Random Business firm Webster'due south Higher Dictionary (1991); The American Heritage Dictionary of the English language Language, 4th edition (2006); New Oxford American Dictionary, third edition (2010); Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011).
^ Drawing on the "semiotics" of Charles Sanders Peirce, Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their ability to use the 3 possible functions of signs: as icon (mimetically), as alphabetize (in the situation of enunciation), or equally symbol (as a semiological organisation in the fictional mode). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and physical: it indicates and incarnates a fictional earth past means of signs, such that past the end of the process of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."^[2]
^ Brown writes that aboriginal Greek drama "was essentially the creation of classical Athens: all the dramatists who were after regarded as classics were agile at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the fourth dimension of the Athenian democracy), and all the surviving plays date from this catamenia".^[3] "The dominant civilisation of Athens in the fifth century", Goldhill writes, "tin be said to have invented theatre".^[five]
^ Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the practise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian denizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a male child") each have their "own regime of brandish and regulation," however the term "functioning" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activeness".^[nine]
^ Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".^[21]
^ Cartledge writes that although Athenians of the 4th century judged Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides "every bit the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was non merely a fifth-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived aureate age. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the republic—and beyond it".^[24]
^ We accept vii by Aeschylus, vii by Sophocles, and eighteen past Euripides. In addition, we too have the Cyclops, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that i of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives every bit Euripides'—Rhesus—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, 8, xix). (This dubiety accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.)
^ The theory that Prometheus Bound was not written past Aeschylus adds a 4th, bearding playwright to those whose work survives.
^ Exceptions to this pattern were made, equally with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BCE. In that location were as well carve up competitions at the Urban center Dionysia for the performance of dithyrambs and, after 488–7 BCE, comedies.
^ Rush Rehm offers the following statement every bit testify that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the Urban center Dionysia was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do with Eleutherae', a town on the edge between Boeotia and Attica that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point Athens annexed Eleutherae—virtually likely after the overthrow of the Peisistratid tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-paradigm of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the temple near the theatre of Dionysus and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, afterward sacrifice and hymns, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-cosmos of the god's arrival into Athens, besides as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. Every bit the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'liberty', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly advisable for jubilant their own political liberation and democratic reforms."^[33]
^ Jean-Pierre Vernant argues that in The Persians Aeschylus substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audition and the age of heroes a spatial distance between the Western audience and the Eastern Persian culture. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar upshot: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the twenty-four hours are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).
^ Aristotle, Poetics, line 1449a: "One-act, every bit we have said, is a representation of inferior people, non indeed in the full sense of the discussion bad, but the laughable is a species of the base of operations or ugly. It consists in some corrigendum or ugliness that does non cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted only not painful'."
^ The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to behave forwards".
^ Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a lyric, is non primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the words upshot, as one might put it, from the underlying structure of incident and character. Equally Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should exist the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imiates, and what he imitates are actions'" (1949, 8).
^ See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham 1998
^ While at that place is some dispute among theatre historians, information technology is probable that the plays by the Roman Seneca were non intended to exist performed. Manfred past Byron is a proficient example of a "dramatic verse form." Encounter the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham 1998.
^ Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte, improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic activity (encounter Gordon 1983 and Duchartre 1966). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The archetype formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and Viola Spolin in the US; run across Johnstone 2007 and Spolin 1999.
^ The outset "Edwardian musical comedy" is usually considered to be In Town (1892), even though information technology was produced viii years before the beginning of the Edwardian era; see, for instance, Fraser Charlton, "What are EdMusComs?" (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011).
^ Run into Carlson 1993, Pfister 2000, Elam 1980, and Taxidou 2004. Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal ascertain their epic theatre projects (Non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, even so, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.^[76]
^ In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the writer writes on newspaper. The player writes with his body on the phase" and that the "score of an opera is not the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made mankind and claret on stage"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).

Citations [edit]

^ Carlson 1986, p. 36.
^ ^a ^b Pavis 1998, pp. 345–346.
^ ^a ^b ^c Brown 1998, p. 441.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cartledge 1997, pp. 3–v.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Goldhill 1997, p. 54.
^ Cartledge 1997, pp. 3, 6.
^ Goldhill 2004, pp. 20–xx.
^ Rehm 1992, p. 3.
^ Goldhill 2004, p. ane.
^ Pelling 2005, p. 83.
^ Goldhill 2004, p. 25.
^ Pelling 2005, pp. 83–84.
^ ^a ^b Dukore 1974, p. 31.
^ ^a ^b Janko 1987, p. ix.
^ Ward 2007, p. 1.
^ "Introduction to Theatre – Ancient Greek Theatre". novaonline.nvcc.edu.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. fifteen–xix.
^ "Theatre | Chambers Dictionary of Globe History – Ideology Reference". search.credoreference.com.
^ Ley 2007, p. 206.
^ Styan 2000, p. 140.
^ Taxidou 2004, p. 104.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 32–33.
^ Chocolate-brown 1998, p. 444.
^ Cartledge 1997, p. 33.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. 5.
^ Kovacs 2005, p. 379.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. 15.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 13–15.
^ Brownish 1998, pp. 441–447.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Brown 1998, p. 442.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 15–17.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. thirteen, 15.
^ Rehm 1992, p. xv.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. fifteen–xvi.
^ Webster 1967.
^ Beacham 1996, p. 2.
^ Beacham 1996, p. three.
^ Gassner & Allen 1992, p. 93.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Brandon 1993, p. xvii.
^ Brandon 1997, pp. 516–517.
^ ^a ^b ^c Richmond 1998, p. 516.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} Richmond 1998, p. 517.
^ ^a ^b Richmond 1998, p. 518.
^ Don Rubin; Chua Soo Pong; Ravi Chaturvedi; et al. (2001). The Globe Encyclopedia of Gimmicky Theatre: Asia/Pacific. Taylor & Francis. pp. 184–186. ISBN978-0-415-26087-nine.
^ "PENGETAHUAN TEATER" (PDF), Kemdikbud
^ ""Wayang boob theatre", Inscribed in 2008 (3.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2003)". UNESCO. Retrieved October 10, 2014.
^ James R. Brandon (2009). Theatre in Southeast Asia. Harvard University Press. pp. 143–145, 352–353. ISBN978-0-674-02874-half dozen.
^ Kuritz 1988, p. 305.
^ ^a ^b "London's 10 oldest theatres". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January xi, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
^ "From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered". The Phase.co.britain . Retrieved December 17, 2020.
^ "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing for their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses". Early English Books Online. January 24, 1643.
^ Robinson, Scott R. "The English language Theatre, 1642–1800". Scott R. Robinson Dwelling house. CWU Section of Theatre Arts. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. Retrieved Baronial 6, 2012.
^ "Women'due south Lives Surrounding Belatedly 18th Century Theatre". English language 3621 Writing by Women . Retrieved Baronial seven, 2012.
^ Bermel, Albert. "Moliere – French Dramatist". Detect French republic. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ Blackness 2010, pp. 533–535.
^ Matthew, Brander. "The Drama in the 18th Century". Moonstruch Drama Bookstore . Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ Wilhelm Kosch, "Seyler, Abel", in Lexicon of German Biography, eds. Walther Killy and Rudolf Vierhaus, Vol. ix, Walter de Gruyter editor, 2005, ISBN 3-11-096629-8, p. 308.
^ "7028 end. Tartu Saksa Teatrihoone Vanemuise 45a, 1914-1918.a." Kultuurimälestiste register (in Estonian). Retrieved June 23, 2020.
^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 293–426.
^ ^a ^b Richmond, Swann & Zarrilli 1993, p. 12.
^ Brandon 1997, p. 70.
^ Deal 2007, p. 276.
^ Moreh 1986, pp. 565–601.
^ Elam 1980, p. 98.
^ ^a ^b Pfister 2000, p. 11.
^ Fergusson 1968, pp. 2–3.
^ Burt 2008, pp. 30–35.
^ Rehm 1992, 150n7.
^ Jones 2003, pp. 4–eleven.
^ Kenrick, John (2003). "History of Phase Musicals". Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ S.H. Butcher, [one], 2011
^ Banham 1998, p. 1118.
^ Williams 1966, pp. 14–16.
^ Williams 1966, p. 16.
^ Williams 1966, pp. thirteen–84.
^ ^a ^b Taxidou 2004, pp. 193–209.
^ Gordon 2006, p. 194.
^ Aristotle Poetics 1447a13 (1987, 1).
^ Carlson 1993, p. 19.
^ Janko 1987, pp. xx, 7–10.
^ Carlson 1993, p. 16.
^ Benedetti 1999, pp. 124, 202.
^ Benedetti 2008, p. 6.
^ Carnicke 1998, p. 162.
^ Gauss 1999, p. 2.
^ ^a ^b Banham 1998, p. 1032.
^ Carnicke 1998, p. 1.
^ Counsell 1996, pp. 24–25.
^ Gordon 2006, pp. 37–40.
^ Leach 2004, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Counsell 1996, p. 25.
^ Carnicke 1998, pp. ane, 167.
^ Counsell 1996, p. 24.
^ Milling & Ley 2001, p. 1.
^ Benedetti 2005, pp. 147–148.
^ Carnicke 1998, pp. ane, 8.
^ Peterson 1982.
^ Alice T. Carter, "Non-traditional venues can inspire art, or just great performances Archived 2010-09-03 at the Wayback Motorcar", Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, July 7, 2008. Retrieved Feb 12, 2011.

General sources [edit]

Banham, Martin, ed. (1998) [1995]. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43437-8.
Beacham, Richard C. (1996). The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-77914-3.
Benedetti, Jean (1999) [1988]. Stanislavski: His Life and Art (Revised ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-52520-1.
Benedetti, Jean (2005). The Fine art of the Histrion: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Solar day. London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-77336-1.
Benedetti, Jean (2008). "Stanislavski on Stage". In Dacre, Kathy; Fryer, Paul (eds.). Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. pp. vi–9. ISBNane-903454-01-viii.
Black, Joseph, ed. (2010) [2006]. The Broadview Album of British Literature: Book 3: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. Canada: Broadview Press. ISBN978-ane-55111-611-2.
Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. "Introduction". In Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (eds.). Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xvii–xx. ISBN978-81-208-0772-3.
Brandon, James R., ed. (1997). The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre (2nd, revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-58822-5.
Brockett, Oscar G. & Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre (Ninth, International ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN0-205-41050-two.
Dark-brown, Andrew (1998). "Greece, Ancient". In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 441–447. ISBN0-521-43437-8.
Burt, Daniel South. (2008). The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time . New York: Facts on File. ISBN978-0-8160-6073-three.
Carlson, Marvin (Fall 1986). "Psychic Polyphony". Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism: 35–47.
Carlson, Marvin (1993). Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present (Expanded ed.). Ithaca and London: Cornell Academy Press. ISBN0-8014-8154-six.
Carnicke, Sharon Marie (1998). Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive series. London: Harwood Bookish Publishers. ISBN90-5755-070-9.
Cartledge, Paul (1997). "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life". In Easterling, P. E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature serial. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–35. ISBN0-521-42351-ane.
Counsell, Colin (1996). Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-10643-6.
Deal, William E. (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early on Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-nineteen-533126-4.
Duchartre, Pierre Louis (1966) [1929]. The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte . Translated past Randolph T. Weaver. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-21679-9.
Dukore, Bernard F., ed. (1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN978-0-03-091152-1.
Elam, Keir (1980). The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents series. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-03984-0.
Fergusson, Francis (1968) [1949]. The Thought of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Irresolute Perspective . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-01288-1.
Gassner, John & Allen, Ralph G. (1992) [1964]. Theatre and Drama in the Making. New York: Adulation Books. ISBNone-55783-073-8.
Gauss, Rebecca B. (1999). Lear'due south Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Fine art Theatre 1905–1927. American University Studies, Ser. 26 Theatre Arts. Vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-4155-nine.
Goldhill, Simon (1997). "The Audition of Athenian Tragedy". In Easterling, P. Due east. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature serial. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 54–68. ISBN0-521-42351-1.
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Gordon, Mel (1983). Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Performing Arts Journal. ISBN0-933826-69-ix.
Gordon, Robert (2006). The Purpose of Playing: Modernistic Acting Theories in Perspective. Ann Arbor: Academy of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-472-06887-6.
Aristotle (1987). Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics Ii and the Fragments of the On Poets. Translated by Janko, Richard. Cambridge: Hackett. ISBN978-0-87220-033-3.
Johnstone, Keith (2007) [1981]. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre (revised ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN0-7136-8701-0.
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Kovacs, David (2005). "Text and Transmission". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient Globe serial. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 379–393. ISBN1-4051-7549-four.
Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-547861-5.
Leach, Robert (2004). Makers of Mod Theatre: An Introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-31241-7.
Ley, Graham (2007). The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-47757-2.
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Pavis, Patrice (1998). Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis . Translated past Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Printing. ISBN978-0-8020-8163-6.
Pelling, Christopher (2005). "Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Civilisation". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World serial. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 83–102. ISBN1-4051-7549-4.
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Richmond, Farley P.; Swann, Darius L. & Zarrilli, Phillip B., eds. (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Functioning. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-1322-two.
Spolin, Viola (1999) [1963]. Improvisation for the Theater (Third ed.). Evanston, Il: Northwestern Academy Press. ISBN0-8101-4008-X.
Styan, J. L. (2000). Drama: A Guide to the Report of Plays. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-4489-5.
Taxidou, Olga (2004). Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN0-7486-1987-nine.
Teachout, Terry. "The Best Theater of 2021: The Curtain Goes Up Again". wsj. orangepolly. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
Ward, A.C (2007) [1945]. Specimens of English language Dramatic Criticism XVII–XX Centuries. The World'due south Classics series. Oxford: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-1-4086-3115-7.
Webster, T. B. L. (1967). "Monuments Illustrating Tragedy and Satyr Play". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies (Supplement, with appendix) (2nd ed.). University of London (20): iii–190.
Williams, Raymond (1966). Modern Tragedy. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN0-7011-1260-iii.

External links [edit]

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Theatre Archive Project (U.k.) British Library & University of Sheffield.
University of Bristol Theatre Drove
Music Hall and Theatre History of Britain and Ireland

Down to the basement so there were many people who loved the theater they acted and done.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre